~ Gender Roles, Subject, and Power ~

   
     Women in society were obligated to fulfill the predetermined roles of either taking care of the household chores, being married, or satisfying the role as a mother. This ideology was known as the “cult of domesticity.” This view represented a patriarchal society where men had all the power in society and women were excluded from having any power. In other words, it was obvious that there were very limited options for women in society due to the fact that they were granted fewer rights than men! Luckily, women are now perceived as individuals that have a value and are seen and treated more humane in modern society. However, it was not an easy journey to establish the “progress” that is displayed today. Women were constantly battling through obstacles to overcome the restraints put upon them by society from the Middle Ages in Europe, throughout the Renaissance, and into the 19^th century. With that being said, it was a challenge for women to attain an identity of their own apart from being connected to other roles that were forced upon them! 

     In Europe during the Middle Ages, there was a pyramidal, hierarchical structured economy known as Feudalism. Hence, individuals at the bottom of the pyramid (peasants) were not permitted to advance up to where the wealthier, more privileged individuals were (Pope, king, lords). This type of economic structured allowed men to possess their dominance over women. In Women, Art, and Society, Whitney Chadwick states, “The Church’s hierarchal organization reinforced the class distinctions in society; its patriarchal dogma included a full set of theories on the natural inferiority of women which can be traced back to ancient Greece and the Old Testament” (Chadwick 44). In other words, the ideology of men keeping women “beneath” them and under their control implicates their need for a submissive object to control. This process is an ongoing dilemma throughout history. Women were not allowed to express their own interests or have complete freedom and equality like men did! Similarly, in The Guerilla Girls, the inequality that women experienced was noted, “A woman was required to be faithful to her husband, and adultery could be punished by flogging or being buried alive. Husbands were allowed to commit adultery unless it was with another man’s wife” (The Guerilla Girls 22). In this quotation, it is evident that men were allowed to exhibit their freedom, whereas women pretty much did not have any. Hence, this led to women becoming nuns and they joined convents. By doing so, women had a taste of power, the opportunity to receive an education, and they could even afford independence. However, they were still not granted full independence as Chadwick highlights, “women had access to learning even though they were prohibited from teaching” (Chadwick 45). Therefore, women still had limitations to their freedom even though they were allowed to be educated. The image below illustrates subjects from a long tradition of Byzantine Art made by Herrad of Landsberg, who was a nun herself. The image mimics a yearbook, which holds the history of humankind from previous generations. More and more females were taking the route of becoming a nun to free themselves from the oppression of societal norms just like Herrad of Landsberg did.

Herrad of Landsberg, Hortus Deliciarum (Garden of Delights), after 1170. This image includes the history of humankind and illustrates the transmission of learning of Nuns in Germany. 

     Transitioning into the Renaissance period, the same obligations for women persisted. However, women started to produce more paintings although their works were still deterred and not recognized. They were still bound to a life of domesticity, but deliberately expressed their thoughts and feelings pertaining to their oppression through their works. As Chadwick exclaims, “women were relegated to areas that required fewer skills, or skills of a kind that could be easily transferred to new households upon marriage” (Chadwick 68). Hence, women of this period took up work in cloth production in guilds, such as lace-making. This type of work was viewed as a basic task that required very little skill. However, women artists who already had a father who was an artist began to reflect societal pressures by painting in an expressive manner. One of the female artists of the Renaissance period that influenced more females to acknowledge their passion for art was Sofonisba Anguissola from Bologna, Italy. Although Sofonisba Anguissola’s father was not an artist, he did believe that women should be able to pursue an education. Therefore, Amilcare Anguissola, her father, corresponded his daughter’s painting to a well-known artist, Michelangelo. The image that the father showed Michelangelo was called “Boy Bitten by Crayfish” as illustrated below.

Sofonisba Anguissola, Boy Bitten by a Crayfish, before 1559. This work was used to challenge famous artist, Michelangelo in both craft and wit. 

     Another one of Sofonisba Anguissola’s work that displays female achievement was titled “Self Portrait at the Easel Painting a Devotional Panel,” which is displayed below. In this image, the person in the painting becomes the subject and is no longer an “object.” In other words, the subject gazes outward towards the audience as if she has been interrupted by doing what she enjoys the most. If you look closely, the painting that the subject is working on is the Virgin Mary and Christ as a child. Hence, Sofonisba Anguissola wanted to incorporate this scene to identify herself with the virtuous, Virgin Mary. The simple black outfit that the subject wears denotes modesty and virtue. Therefore, to overcome the struggle of not being recognized as an artist with the same respect a man would receive, Sofonisba Anguissola creates a self-portrait to prove to her audience that she has talent and the ability to paint just like a man does. She used this portrait to disregard societal expectations of what role women should adhere to! Other female artists of the Renaissance are Elisabetta Sirani, Artemisia Gentileschi, Lavinia Fontana, Judith Leyster, and more women who aimed to diminish the idea that women possessed no talent in art and only men could be great artists!  

Sofonisba Anguissola, Self Portrait at the Easel Painting a Devotional Panel, 1556. The artist reveals her identity as a painter with a calm and reserved expression on her face. 

     As for the 19^th Century or the “Victorian Era,” the domestic roles of women were still intact, but there were slight alterations to what they could do with their passion for art. The chapter in The Guerilla Girls for the 19^th Century is titled “Girls Going Places,” and indeed they were (Guerilla Girls 46). During this era, the Industrial Revolution changes the structure of the family. Both men and women were now earning wages. There were several women in the 19^th century who expressed their limitations in society through their works. One woman in particular who embodied the identity of a man in order to paint like “men” was Rosa Bonheur. Rosa Bonheur lived a very unconventional life. She was a lesbian who had a permit to crossdress, which was encouraged by her family (Chadwick 193). In Bonheur’s painting (depicted below), “The Horse Fair,” she illustrates a gathering of a range of different colored horses with men on top of them. Horses are considered to be wild animals until they are in a domesticated space. The horses in this image symbolize women, who are portrayed as the heroes in society for going through all the hardships thus far. In other words, the horses reveal the strength and beauty of women, but they are not the ones that can do the work. Instead, the men on top of the horses use their sticks to lash the horses to get them to do what they want them to do. This relates to women in society who are controlled by men. Rosa Bonheur emphasizes the animal’s freedom and uncorrupted nature within this image. She also shows loyalty and courage that the horses display!
     Although women were slowly starting to obtain rights that they should have had from the very beginning, they still had limitations and confinements in society. These artists effectively illustrate the insights into the lives of women living during the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and 19^th century. The artists skillfully communicate the feelings of their oppression with their paintings. Women have been making and continue making progress in eliminating gender barriers and achieving gender equality!

Rosa Bonheur, The Horse Fair, 1852-1855. This image symbolizes women surviving the tremendous amount of torture by men. 

Works Cited:

Chadwick, Whitney. Women, Art, and Society. Langara College, 2016.

Hessel, K. (2016, December 20). 8 Women Artists Who Influenced the Renaissance and Baroque. Retrieved from https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-these-women-artists-influenced-the-renaissance-and-baroque.

Hierarchy structure. (2017, November 30). Pyramid of Feudal Hierarchy: Feudal Hierarchy Chart. Retrieved from https://www.hierarchystructure.com/pyramid-of-feudal-hierarchy/.

The Guerrilla Girls' Bedside Companion to the History of Western Art. 
          Penguin, 1998.